Deep-sea mining: ocean ecosystems under threat
Several states have accelerated plans for deep-sea mining to extract valuable metals from the seabed, including for electric vehicle batteries. The Cook Islands is one of several Pacific Island states viewing this as an economic opportunity, with Norway taking the lead in the global north. Civil society is calling for a moratorium, citing the untested nature of the technology and uncertain environmental impacts in largely unexplored deep-sea environments. Hope may come from a recent change in leadership at the International Seabed Authority, the body responsible for regulating seabed use in international waters.
Up for grabs are clusters of metals called nodules that litter the seafloor. They’re made up of minerals accumulated over thousands of years and can contain valuable elements such as cobalt, manganese and nickel. Nodules have been known about for decades, but their extraction has only recently become potentially profitable due to rising prices for the metals they contain. They’re in high demand, not least for use in mobile phones and electric vehicle batteries, touted as a key part of the transition to a low-carbon economy.
Communities divided in the Cook Islands
The nodules currently attracting the most interest are in the Pacific Ocean, and they present something of a dilemma for the small island nations that dot the vast seas. They offer a potential source of wealth amid few alternatives for economies strained by climate impacts.
Pacific Island nations, particularly low-lying atolls that are acutely vulnerable to rising sea levels, are on the frontlines of a climate crisis they’ve done almost nothing to create, since they’ve produced hardly any of the greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate change. For countries that are being asked to forego the benefits of the carbon-powered industrialisation enjoyed by global north countries , deep-sea mining seems to offer a win-win of economic benefits from the low-carbon transition. With global north governments consistently failing to provide the funding needed to mitigate and adapt to climate change, countries may feel they have few alternatives.
The Cook Islands, a group of 15 Polynesian islands, is leading the way. Its government granted three exploratory deep-sea mining licences in 2022. Since then, work has been underway to map some of the seabed in the country’s 1.96 million square kilometre exclusive economic zone. In September 2024, the country further highlighted its ambitions by hosting a deep-sea mining conference.
Mining companies are using their deep pockets to fund sponsorships and community initiatives to try to win public support. But communities remain divided, with many people concerned about the environmental impacts and urging respect for cultural traditions in which respect for the ocean is central. During the conference, people took to the sea in boats to protest.
The history of mining in global south countries is pretty grim. Most of the profits have gone to large companies based in global north countries, with local people playing little role beyond extracting raw materials that are typically processed and used elsewhere, and receiving little economic benefit. But the costs of mining, including pollution, often fall on communities living near extraction sites, which typically face repression if they’re seen to resist mining. Mining revenues are also often associated with elite corruption, particularly in countries with authoritarian regimes and restricted civic space, where it’s hard for civil society to hold political and economic power to account.
Mining at sea rather than on land may avoid some of these problems. But there are many unknowns. The technology is untested, and it’s hard to see how the seabed could be mined without causing significant environmental disruption. Mining can be expected to cause widespread disturbance of sediment and mud, which recent research suggests acts as a carbon sink, meaning that disturbing it could release more greenhouse gases. Noise pollution could also harm marine life. And unlike the Earth’s surface, science still knows relatively little about life in the deep sea. Many species remain uncategorised, and there’s still much to learn about the role deep-sea environments play in the ecological chains that humanity depends on. Without more research, it’s hard even to say how much damage could be done.
Deep-sea mining is being promoted even though the technology is still in its infancy, and by the time it’s developed the current demand for the metals in nodules is likely to have declined, partly as a result of improved recycling and advances in battery technology.
Norway’s ambitions on pause
Across the world, fossil fuel superpower Norway is also among those eager to mine the seabed. Extracting oil and gas from its surrounding seas made it a rich country, home to the world’s biggest sovereign wealth fund. Now it’s looking to exploit other resources. In January 2024, Norway’s parliament overwhelmingly voted to allow exploration of its seabed, putting it on track to become the first country to actually start mining the ocean floor. One of the reported motivations was to reduce its raw material imports from China.
The move attracted widespread civil society criticism. Thanks to civil society advocacy, the decision was qualified: the bill mandates parliamentary approval of any mining licences, opening up a space for scrutiny and further campaigning. Still determined to stop the move, civil society has also taken legal action.
Fortunately, there’s been a potentially crucial stay of execution. Last December, Norway’s plans were delayed when one of the parties supporting the minority government refused to back the budget if the exploration plan went ahead. This means nothing will happen until after elections scheduled for September 2025. Civil society will use the time to try to keep the issue in the public spotlight.
Voices from the frontline
Martin Sveinssønn Melvær is Materials and Industry Lead at the Bellona Foundation, an independent civil society organisation that works to identify and implement sustainable solutions to the world’s most pressing environmental challenges.
The rush to allow deep-sea mining is based on a gross miscalculation. Seabed minerals are presented as a solution to the shortage of metals needed for the green transition. But forecasts by the International Energy Agency and other serious sources indicate that the mineral bottleneck, in which mineral supply will have problems meeting demand, will last about 10 or 15 years, while the most optimistic estimates indicate that commercial seabed mining in Norwegian waters will only be able to start between 15 and 25 years from now. The technology needed for deep-sea mining is still very immature and history shows that it takes many years of development to move new technology to an industrial scale. At Bellona, we believe the solution to the mineral bottleneck is not deep-sea mining but a strong focus on circularity combined with more sustainable mining practices on land.
It’s difficult to understand why the Norwegian government would rush this process. My impression is that it’s overly eager to find a new industry that can create jobs as the oil industry declines, not realising, or not wanting to realise, that on top of being environmentally irresponsible, deep-sea mining is unlikely to be profitable. Even the main Norwegian oil company, Equinor, has warned against deep-sea mining and referred to the precautionary principle, which calls for the adoption of precautionary measures when scientific evidence about an environmental or human health hazard is uncertain and the stakes are high.
Something that should also be factored in is strong pressure by Offshore Norge, the oil industry’s lobbying organisation. Although the main oil companies have not shown much interest in deep-sea mining, Offshore Norge has promoted it very actively. You could call it ‘petroholism’. Our government is used to giving the oil industry everything it wants.
Deep-sea mining should be stopped until current knowledge gaps have been filled. We encourage everyone to support a global moratorium on deep-sea mining.
This is an edited extract of our conversation with Martin. Read the full interview here.
International body’s key role
The Cook Islands isn’t the only Pacific Island state considering deep-sea mining. Kiribati, Nauru and Tonga are also backing international companies seeking licences.
But not all are going down the same road. Fiji, Palau, Samoa and Vanuatu are among the Pacific Island states supporting a moratorium, joined by governments including Brazil, Canada, France and Germany. Thirty-two states back a moratorium; eight signed up in 2024.
The International Seabed Authority (ISA) has a potentially pivotal role to play. Established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the ISA has 168 member states and is headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica. While not much can be done to stop states mining in their national waters, the ISA’s job is to regulate the areas beyond national jurisdiction, which make up around half of the world’s seabed.
In recent years, the ISA has been accused of being too close to extractive industries. So far it’s awarded 31 exploration contracts to companies and states including India, Poland and South Korea. Some states – among them Nauru – have pushed for it to move faster. It was Nauru that triggered a crisis in 2021 when it informed the ISA of its intentions to pursue deep-sea mining in international waters, sparking a process to try to develop regulations. Talks in 2023 that were supposed to agree these rules broke up with no agreement, delaying the adoption of regulations until at least this year.
At this crucial time, a change of emphasis was signalled in September with the appointment of a new ISA secretary-general. Brazilian Leticia Carvalho is the first ISA leader who’s a woman, an oceanographer and from Latin America. She defeated the incumbent head, British lawyer Michael Lodge, who was seeking a third term. He was accused of pushing for deep-sea mining, and his candidacy was strongly backed by the Kiribati government, which allegedly pressured Carvalho to step aside.
Carvalho has vowed to increase transparency and restore confidence amid allegations of mismanagement and bias towards mining interests within the ISA.
Voices from the frontline
Juressa Lee is Deep-Sea Mining Campaigner at Greenpeace Aotearoa.
Thw ISA has faced some criticism under Michael Lodge. He’s been accused of overstepping his role and being an industry advocate rather than a neutral regulator. Concerns about overspending and mismanagement of ISA funds have also been discussed at length at recent ISA Council meetings. All of this comes at a time when deep-sea mining is under intense scrutiny for its environmental and social impacts, particularly on Indigenous cultural heritage.
With the appointment of Leticia Carvalho as the new secretary-general, there is hope for a change in the ISA’s approach. The view from Greenpeace and civil society is that it’s essential the new secretary-general puts the health of the oceans at the heart of the ISA.
There is a growing wave of resistance to deep-sea mining around the world, with five nations joining the call for a moratorium at the last ISA session in July. Indigenous peoples, including those here in Pacific, want to see the new secretary-general engage with governments to change the ISA’s course to serve the public interest, as it has been driven by the narrow corporate interests of the deep-sea mining industry for far too long.
Greenpeace advocates for a moratorium – a temporary halt – on deep-sea mining because of its unsustainable nature and significant environmental risks. We believe the ISA should take a precautionary approach and delay any new mining licences until we have conducted scientific research that helps us fully understand deep-sea ecosystems.
This is an edited extract of our conversation with Juressa. Read the full interview here.
The ISA should now signal a change of direction by consulting widely with civil society, including Indigenous groups, on the way forward. Until there’s clarity about the impacts of deep-sea mining and how to minimise them, this untested technology shouldn’t be deployed. Civil society will continue to call for a moratorium on deep-sea mining and for alternatives to extraction, including increased recycling and measures to better manage consumption.
OUR CALLS FOR ACTION
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Governments and the International Seabed Authority should adopt a moratorium on deep-sea mining until research has established its likely impacts on ecosystems.
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The International Seabed Authority should consult with civil society, including Indigenous groups and coastal communities, when making any decision on deep-sea mining.
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Governments and companies should make greater efforts to promote a circular economy, based on reuse, repair and recycling, rather than continued extraction.
For interviews or more information, please contact research@civicus.org
Cover photo by Kenzo Tribouillard/AFP via Getty Images